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Later in the period defensive walls were added at Argos but not, curi- ously, at coastal Lerna. Burial customs were reasonably standard. British Museum, London was typical for infants and very young children. Older children and adults were usually buried in individual cist graves or pits, sometimes within the settlement but, increasingly as time passed, in grave- yards outside the town walls.
Such tumuli doubtless formed the burial place of members of the same family or other social group. Grave gifts were poor, but became richer toward the end of the period. On the island of Aegina, a sword, dagger, spear, and pottery both local and imported were found in a shaft grave. Graves like this announced the social standing of the buried person by the wealth of the accompanying gifts and anticipated the great richness of the shaft graves of Mycenae. The fab- ric is fired very hard and has few or no coarse, heavy 2.
Height particles of clay in it. Argos Museum greasy feel. The color used initially is gray Gray Minyan , then later yellow Yellow Minyan , but it is alongside the Minyan is quite different, as it is hand- always monochrome.
Shapes are few: thick-stemmed built, decorated with relatively unadventurous geo- goblets fig. They are sharply profiled, Beak-spouted jugs, huge storage jars, and kantharoi reflecting the use of the fast wheel. It is worth repeat- are popular shapes. The matte-painted pottery made poverty of the architecture, and the absence of any. He has acquired a twofold reputation: on the one funded himself. He has his detractors, and not without reason. He hand as the first uncoverer of Bronze Age cultures of the visited America and fraudulently became an American Aegean, and on the other as a rogue.
What are we to citizen. In , he bribed members of the Indiana state make of the dubious reputation of this energetic and legislature to prevent divorce law changes. In Russia, inspired man? Bribery entered commercial school at the age of eleven. He proved here too? His autobiographies and diaries are riddled to be phenomenally good at languages, with inconsistencies and seem as mastering Latin, French, English, and concerned with self-promotion as they Russian aside from his native German , are with veracity.
Discrepancies in before being sent to St. As well as working for them, meddle with the evidence to inflate its he also set up his own business in importance. In , to revealed the material he retired from business, visited China existence of the prehistoric Aegean and Japan, and went to Paris to learn world. Without him, the discovery Greek and archaeology.
With Pausanias would have been delayed a generation. Was he a genius or learning , he visited Troy and Mycenae a scoundrel? What do you think? All his 2. It is often plausible to some that the Trojans and Greeks of the MB period associate breaks in the archaeological profile of a may be of the same racial stock. Alternatively, it country or zone, such as those toward or at the end might simply suggest social or commercial contacts of the third millennium, with the arrival of new peo- between Troy and Greece.
What is surprising, how- ples. Since the Greek language was in use in the Late ever, is the sharp difference between the cultural Bronze Age, as shown by the Linear B tablets see poverty of Greece and the might of Troy. A recent theory has proposed, however, that The site excavated as Troy by Schliemann in the later even in Neolithic times the residents were speaking nineteenth century, by the University of Cincinnati in an early form of Greek.
Paved ramp leading to southwest gate. Inspired by episodes in the story of the great war between Greece and Troy recorded in the Homeric poems and in later authors, and guided by geographical clues in Homer, Schlie- mann excavated a hillock known as Hisarlik and identified it as Troy.
The site stands in a commanding position, at the end of the land route from Asia to Europe traveled by many migrants, and was thus a recognizable channel for cultural ideas. It was also handily situ- ated to control shipping making its way through the Dardanelles from the Aegean to the Black Sea and vice versa. Schliemann discovered the remains of sev- eral citadels, one on top of another, to which he gave sequential numbers, Troy I being the lowermost set- tlement retrieved.
His assertion that Troy II should be equated with the Troy of the Homeric poems has been shown to be misguided, but this need not tants lived in dwellings of rectangular plan with a detract from recognition of his achievement. Almost porch.
Walls were built of mudbrick and timber singlehandedly, Schliemann began the recovery of the above a stone socle plinth. Bronze Age cultures of the Greek world. None- Troy II is even more massive and brings to mind theless, there are aspects of his work that fall short of the fortified sites of Greece and the Cyclades built accepted standards of scientific inquiry.
Troy was fortified from the beginning. Troy I It covers an area of some 9, square yards 8, was furnished with huge, stonebuilt in their massive sq m fig. A huge fortification wall built of lower courses walls, which are still visible today.
A stone and mudbrick was strengthened by numerous projecting bastion with sloping walls protected the towers and bastions; paved ramps fig. Within the walls, inhabi- Within, the central unit, a megaron larger than the. The building had a porch, a hall IV show a decline in prosperity from the brilliance of twice the size of the porch, and in all probability a Troy II, while Troy V represents the final stage back chamber too.
Walls were almost 5 feet 1. In the MB period the site at thick; foundations were of stone, the walls them- Troy expanded to about double the size of the third- selves of mudbrick and timber above a stone socle millennium citadel. It is now known as Troy VI — that course. A courtyard stood in front of the entrance, is, the sixth city built on the site — though it does not the whole complex giving an impression of great appear to have taken the monumental form in which space and ease.
Dressed stone blocks were used for it is best known today until the very end of the phase. Comparably advanced urban entangling of buildings and archaeological levels has planning may be seen nearby in the northeastern been a daunting task. At the same time, the citadel complex at of the phasing and chronology was carried out by the Troy is a far more impressive statement of the power University of Cincinnati in excavations conducted in of the local ruler than anything on the Greek main- the s.
The excava- and produced numerous monochrome shapes that tors give dates of around — BC for this city, were sometimes embellished with clay human faces detecting eight strata and three chronological phases. They also wove textiles. They are The top of the hill was doubtless crowned by large probably best known, however, for their metal buildings from the beginning of the MB age, all trace goods: gold, silver, and bronze cups and bowls, and of which was lost in later remodeling.
A fortification much jewelry. It took its massive exemplified than here. The wall itself was built, in its its craftsmen. It turns out, however, Schliemann published the treasure almost at once, that the objects are of Middle Bronze date and and almost at once the Ottomans launched lawsuits cannot therefore be contemporaneous with the against him. So the name of the renounced their claim. Schliemann then began hawking treasure is misleading.
According to Schliemann himself, the treasure, which had been hidden in the French School all these objects were removed surreptitiously from in Athens, around Europe. It was on view in London the site and within a week were smuggled from Turkey between and , and Schliemann hoped the to Greece.
Furthermore, there is a gift. At the end of World War II in , the treasure still some doubt as to whether this aggregation of was not to be found, and many concluded that it objects — a large copper cauldron, bronze daggers, axes, had been looted by Russian troops and dispersed. In fact, chisels, and spearheads, and gold and silver goblets, it had been taken to Moscow as an act of retaliation gold bracelets, headdresses, and earrings, and more than one among many for the German removal of art from Russia during the war.
Should this much-traveled treasure remain in Russia? It is surely the proximity of these rapidly the south. To the north a great masonry bastion pro- advancing cultures, and the profound social changes tected the water supply 8. A stretch of the paved on the mainland itself, that ensured that Greece could road leading from the main gate into the citadel and not remain much longer in its MH doldrums.
The site of Akrotiri on None was ever fortified. They were destroyed Thera provides good evidence of the mingling of Cre- around BC, along with all other major sites on tan and Cycladic elements in the years prior to the island. Only Knossos, less seriously damaged, around BC. After about BC the Cyclades was repaired and continued in less grand circum- fell wholly into the orbit of mainland Greece.
Knossos is the largest The shift in mainland Greece from MH to LH of the palaces, though they are all evidently taken life is signaled by the grave circles at Mycenae.
During from a single design. From the evidence of the shaft graves of Cir- which is smaller. The plan at Knossos is very compli- cle A, they were warriors. These LH Greeks, it seems, cated, and it is this complexity that may have given enjoyed both an indecent appetite for war and a mas- birth to the legend of the labyrinth there. The palace, tery of navigation. They entered into contact with which alone covered about 3 acres 1.
But the population by their commerce in painted pottery. It seems logical figures and the density of the population, in spite of to conclude that some of the larger pots will have hints from Homer Iliad 2. In the Cyclades, islanders main- were exported eastward to Cyprus, the Syro-Pales- tained some of their own traditions, keeping the typ- tinian coast, and to Egypt.
Materials recovered from ically Cycladic shapes and decorations for their pots. Mycenaean Greeks, in this sense, do be limited to ten-minute spells, rotated among a team not necessarily come from Mycenae but might equal- of several divers; doctors had to be on hand; six-hour ly well come from Tiryns, Pylos, or elsewhere.
At breaks between dives were obligatory. But the home, they built great fortress citadels, like Mycenae, yard-long The image of their societies and bureaucracies eastern Mediterranean in the Late Bronze Age, and appears vividly in the Linear B tablets see pp.
There original wall has been traced. The seabed sloped sharply, but ivory, ostrich eggshells, and ebony. So precise and care- the center part of the vessel had stayed approxi- ful was the work that a number of very small scarabs mately where it sank. Undersea exploration had to were retrieved: among them, and not measuring more than a third of an inch by half an inch 0.
Length 20 yards Bodrum, Turkey 3. This is a very rare find. Royal persons and high. But the richness pharaoh Akhenaten, from of the goods argues against this. The preponderance Uluburun shipwreck. Museum of luxury items and the location of the wreck indi- of Underwater Archaeology cate that this was a tailormade cargo bound for a Castle of the Knights of St. It may have John , Bodrum, Turkey been headed north, but its roster of goods chimes well with the tastes of Mycenaean lords and reflects the upper echelons of highly stratified LH society.
The great majority of the materials from the wreck are of Egyptian, Cypriot, and Levantine origin, and the amount of metal on board, about 15 tons by weight, is enormous.
The written evidence from con- temporary royal archives suggests that cargoes of court officials of the Amarna period preferred rings this kind may well have been materials for gifts or to scarabs for their finger decoration, and this is the exchange.
For example, Linear B tablets from Myce- only gold or silver scarab that we have so far for naean palaces mention every one of the raw materi- Nefertiti. How did it come to be on board? After the als on the wreck, and at Pylos the texts speak of end of the Amarna period, objects associated with many bronzesmiths employed in making and repair- the dismissed ruling family would have had little ing weapons and armor.
Moreover, a text from other than symbolic value. These look like materials for con- scrap, and it seems possible that the Nefertiti scarab sumption by a princely society. The ship is unlikely was such an object, intended for sale or barter either then to have been engaged solely in coastal com- for its intrinsic value or as a trinket. Stored in merce though the scrap metal on board speaks for Canaanite amphoras, and therefore likely to have such a function , and its primary purpose was prob- been loaded at a Phoenician port such as Ugarit Ras ably as a princely vessel carrying materials for gift Shamra in modern Syria , were olives, about a ton of and exchange.
For wealth of information about late terebinth a resin used in perfume , numerous glass fourteenth-century society, the Uluburun shipwreck ingots, and in one amphora there was a folding is matched only by the Linear B tablets. This spectacular find consisted of two wooden leaves c. The inner Crete side of each leaf was recessed and the flat surface of the recess was scratched to hold the soft wax that was Architecture and Wall Painting poured in.
The wax would then have solidified and formed hard surfaces for writing. This writing tablet Knossos The plan fig. The names of Age literacy, is six hundred years older than other rooms in the palace are, of course, modern. It was tion of a folding wooden writing tablet Iliad 6. On almonds, cumin, coriander, safflower — suggest the arrival, the visitor would have been directed down range of cuisine available for passengers and crew, the Corridor of the Procession 8 , the walls of which while firewood found on board has been dated to were painted with processions of people bringing BC by dendrochronology.
C14 dating suggests the ship offerings. A circuitous route led to the staircase up to went down in around BC. North entrance N. East entrance. The the central court. The main staircase 2 to the a sacred place, is small. Here there was also a pillar mate, not built to impress.
It may have served more crypt 4 , that is, a chamber with two pillars deco- as a shrine than as a royal reception room. Immedi- rated with incised images of double axes. Scholars ately to the left, on entering, there is a small rectan- conjecture that this chamber was used for ritual pur- gular space with steps leading down into it, a poses. Behind these public rooms and the state apart- so-called lustral basin.
The function of this space may ments above, a long corridor 6 provided access to have been associated with initiation rites. Against the numerous magazines, or storage units. Here, in huge right-hand wall stood an ornate highbacked chair, pithoi fig. The ability. LMI 3.
Outside the palace proper, but linked to it by raised paved walkways across the west court and to the north entrance, was a rectangular area with what appear to be steps on two sides.
The slope of the hill on which the palace stood was cut into to accommodate these apartments, which des- cended in several stories from the level of the central court.
Access to this domestic quarter from the cen- tral court was by means of a grand staircase The staircase descended alongside an open air shaft,. Eastward from there was the Hall itself 10 , At the foot of the staircase was another light-well, with its PIER-and-door construction. Piers alternating with doors in three separate rows allowed for great 3. Fresco variety in the amount of space used, and for the restored. Iraklion Museum, Crete amount of air and light.
Doors could be open or. Fresco restored. Original in Iraklion Museum, Crete. Scenes were bordered by decorative geo- ingly. Here, one figure grasps the 12 and a lavatory Residents could somersault over its back, while a third is in mid- also count on running water carried beneath the vault.
An early pressure system painting, two of these figures have been thought thus contributed to the water supply. For water and female. But this view has been challenged recently: waste disposal a stone-built drainage system also ran different colors may have been used as social mark- beneath the floors.
Unlike true frescoes, which were painted these bull leapers as female. Only the teristic of the bulljumpers too. Other frescoes, smallest fragments have survived from the painting known as the Miniature Frescoes, of which the so- of the first palaces.
Most of the surviving legible called Grandstand Fresco provides a good example, fragments come from the reconstructed palaces, but are less detailed fig. Impressionistic, rapid brush- even these are fragmentary and many paintings strokes create visions of massed dancers, chattering have been heavily restored, sometimes on rather crowds, landscape elements, and architectural fea- flimsy evidence.
Colors used were red, yellow, black, tures. Occasionally, fresco painters rendered their white, green, and blue, while motifs were derived figures in plaster in low relief before painting them, from the natural world and the courtly life of thus lending a third dimension to their scenes. Land- scapes and flora echo the naturalism of Minoan art. Rivers are awash with papyrus plants, lilies, reeds, fishes, and aquatic birds; hills and valleys are the home of various fowl and all sorts of animals.
Colors are bold and bright: lions and leopards pursue their prey amid foliage painted blue, while red-collared dogs hunt antelope. Human figures also reflect N Minoan types: there are acrobats who wear Minoan boots and garments, fragments of the flounced dresses of women, and scenes of bulljumpers and bulls.
At the 0 50 feet same time, Minoan-style paintings have also come to 0 15 30 meters. The barriers would have kept bulls from eled widely around this part of the Mediterranean. Rubble walls were heavily plastered, and all At the north, access to the domestic quarter was walls were secured with huge horizontal and vertical gained through an elaborate doorway.
GYPSUM was used for the ortho- columns stood on either side, each flanked by a rec- state course of some important walls: the exterior of tangular niche and piers. Beyond the passageway the west wall, for example. There were nade, a pier-and-door construction giving access numerous colonnades and windows, and roofs were northward, and a further rectangular unit with an flat. The architectural vocabulary consisted of courts, alabaster floor, light-wells, and further pier-and-door stairways, light-wells, porticoes, narrow rooms, cor- arrangements.
Although basically similar in plan to ridors, theatral areas, lustral basins, all arranged Knossos, this palace introduced new features: an around a central court and designated in advance for impressive entrance staircase, porticoes on two sides ceremonial, storage, residential, and workshop use. As at Knossos, secure archaeological evidence, but with several there is no trace of fortification; but unlike Knossos, questionable points. Arthur Evans himself — relying there are few of the riches associated with a func- for elevations on the evidence of depictions of build- tioning palace.
At Phaistos fig. The central court fig. To the west, 3. To the however, narrow porches and colonnades lead to a west, as at Knossos, were storage units opening off a residential quarter equipped with stairs, light-wells, corridor. The thickness of the walls of these rooms pier-and-door construction, lustral basins, and ves- implies the existence of upper stories.
To south and tiges of a peristyle court. Gypsum and alabaster are east, much of the palace is lost, but to the north lay used lavishly for paving and veneering of walls and the residential quarter, located here to catch the pre- benches, while fresco fragments evoke the vitality vailing summer breeze. Was this also a res- The central court had colonnaded porticoes on idence of the prince of Phaistos? There were doors protect- ing all the entrances onto the court, and a puzzling Gournia A complete Minoan town was excavated masonry platform in the northwest corner.
The plan on the east side of the court and in the sides of sur- fig. It may be Characteristic of Crete in being built on rocky.
View from the southeast. Circular, winding streets were con- preparatory to shipment, and the mansion at Nerok- nected by other, stepped streets to a central hub, the ourou in the west of the island. There is a good idea of the elevation of such mansions, with small shrine identified by cult objects. The miniature staircase, light-well, columned roof, and balcony.
Torso, arms, legs, and feet were made of ivory quarters above. The tools of many artisans were hippopotamus teeth. Gournia has a comfortable and intimate feel gold and ivory figure. The head was carved from about it, in striking contrast to Mesopotamia, where gray serpentine with eyes of rock-crystal and eye- shrines were not embedded in the fabric of towns, brows and ears of ivory. This rich panoply of materi- but were separate, raised, and massive. However, no other securely identified cult images have been found, not even where they Mansions As well as palaces like Knossos or Zakro might have been expected e.
Arms and Examples include the country mansion at Vathypetro hands hold the posture first articulated in Petsofa ter- where olive-pressing and wine-making took place, racottas centuries before, while the left foot, slightly the coastal mansion at Nirou Chani which stored advanced, adopts a walking stance. Height 6 ins 15 cm. The male and female types, first expressed in ter- racotta in the Petsofa figurines, appear in bronze too fig. Proportions, scale, posture, garments, and even the impressionistic handling of the facial forms follow the Petsofa prototypes.
The gesture is changed. This style is different from that of the faience female fig- urines of MM date from Knossos figs. The surface of these bronzes is commonly quite rough. This may be due to the low percentage of tin in the metal, which often means that it is nearly percent copper, or the deliberate absence of retouch- ing of the cast bronze, or the undetailed modeling of 3. Siteia Museum, east Crete covering the wax model with clay, and heating the clay so that the wax melted away through holes left in the now hard clay.
Molten bronze was then poured into the hollow clay mold and allowed to cool. Finally, the clay was broken away to reveal the bronze figure, cast solid. Steatite rhyton. Serpentine, limestone, and rock-crystal. Some shows a series of sporting events in four registers.
One, depicting a hilltop sanctuary, comes is preserved. The sculpted scene shows an elderly from Zakro and is discussed below see p. At the back of the vase fig. Harvester Vase figs. Twenty-seven figures. The second cup shows a quieter capture in a landscape setting, where again the third dimension is missing.
Recent opinion sug- gests that one of these cups is of mainland Myce- naean manufacture. Yet many still believe that both represent the high point of Minoan metalwork, and indeed of relief sculpture. In the period after the destruction of the palaces, a series of terracotta female figures preserved the tra- dition of female deities or adorants.
These figures, 3. National Museum, Athens by wheelmade lower bodies, hands held aloft, and complicated headdresses, sometimes, as here fig. Some stand as tall appear in all. Their popularity lasted grouped in pairs, one figure slightly in advance of some three hundred years, and they were followed by another, as if distanced from the viewer in spatial a similar Dark Age type fig.
The general hilarity and sense of move- ment disguise the fact that figures in the further plane are no smaller in size. A white band of shell surrounded the nostrils and the horns were of gilt wood. This rhyton is full of naturalism and energy. Bulls, and their capture, are the subject of the famous gold cups found on mainland Greece at Vapheio, in a context dating them to around — BC. There are two cups, each consisting of two sheets of gold, the outer decorated and the inner plain, with a gold handle riveted on.
One cup fig. The third dimension is absent, and objects or landscape elements in the vertical plane appear to float in space, unconnected realisti- 3. LM III. London: Routledge. The main part is unchanged from the 1st edition London: Benn, , with additions only at the end. The approach is clearly art historical, not anthropological. In every chapter, pottery, architecture, and minor arts, as well as burial customs of a specific region, are briefly discussed.
More general chapters are dedicated to settlements, sanctuaries, visual and literary traditions, and possible Eastern influences. Masterpieces of Greek sculpture: a series of essays on the history of art. Edited by Al N. Chicago: Argonaut Publishers. Available online in both English and German Meisterwerke der griechischen Plastik. Kunstgeschichtliche Untersuchungen. Langdon, Susan. Art and identity in Dark Age Greece, — B. New York: Cambridge Univ. A long overdue analysis of the Geometric figurative art as a reflection of and, more importantly, as a powerful means for constructing age, gender, and social identity via images.
It offers the best contextual iconological appreciation of Geometric art. This is definitely not an introduction to Geometric art and culture in the sense Coldstream is, but these two studies combined are the best way to enter the world of Geometric art. Ling, Roger, ed. Making Classical art: Process and practice. Stroud, UK: Tempus. The first part is dedicated to the production processes of Greek and Roman art.
Practical aspects associated with working practices, techniques, materials, and tools are discussed in brief papers on stone and bronze sculpture, wall painting, mosaics, and Greek painted pottery. The second part is an introduction to various categories of artistic expression, such as colossal statues, the Parthenon, Greek funerary monuments, and Macedonian tomb painting.
Pedley, John Griffiths. Greek art and archaeology. Indispensable for anyone teaching a survey course on Greek art and architecture. The structure is strictly based on chronology, so that sometimes an almost evolutionist pattern arises. Pollitt, Jerome J. Art and experience in Classical Greece.
Perhaps the most influential general book on Greek art of the Classical period. Through an exploration of portable or relatively small-scale art forms--vases, figurines, gems, plaques--Tyler Jo Smith focuses on the visual and material evidence for religious life and customs in Archaic and Classical Greece sixth to fourth centuries BC. The book introduces its readers to categories of religious practice e.
Smith combines the study of iconography and the examination of material objects with theoretical perspectives on ritual and performance. When given visual form, religion holds much in common with other ancient Greek modes of artistic expression, including dance and drama. Religion is viewed here as a dynamic performative act, as an expression of connectivity, and as a mechanism of communication.
While the complexities of Greek religion cannot be discerned through the visual or material record alone, Religion in the Art of Archaic and Classical Greece frames a more nuanced reading of the artistic evidence than has been previously available.
Richly illustrated with halftones and seventeen color plates of mostly small-scale objects, the book is much more than a gathering of images and information in a single place.
Taken as a whole, it argues for a visual and material tradition that is intended to express the ritualized practices and shared attitudes of religious life, a story that large public works alone are simply never going to tell.
This survey combines a chronological narrative with an up-to-date account of Greek art and archaeology. The coverage of the ancient Greek world emphasizes its diverse character, and provides a broad historical, cultural, and social context. A comprehensive, authoritative account of the development Greek Art through the 1st millennium BC.
An invaluable resource for scholars dealing with the art, material culture and history of the post-classical world Includes voices from such diverse fields as art history, classical studies, and archaeology and offers a diversity of views to the topic Features an innovative group of chapters dealing with the reception of Greek art from the Middle Ages to the present Includes chapters on Chronology and Topography, as well as Workshops and Technology Includes four major sections: Forms, Times and Places; Contacts and Colonies; Images and Meanings; Greek Art: Ancient to Antique.
An introduction for students, teachers, and lay readers to the delights of exploring the world of ancient Greece. Virtually all of the testable terms, concepts, persons, places, and events from the textbook are included.
Cram Just the FACTS studyguides give all of the outlines, highlights, notes, and quizzes for your textbook with optional online comprehensive practice tests. Only Cram is Textbook Specific. Accompanys: Skip to content. Greek Art and Archaeology.
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